Fig. 1. Three-dimensional (3D) computational lithography system and algorithm. (a) Distributed collaborative 3D computational lithography system; (b) Fourier transform series expansion and light field superposition 3D lithography algorithm

Fig. 2. Morphology and characteristics of micro-nano structures based on 3D vector computing

Fig. 3. SEM image of 3D microstructures

Fig. 4. Projection screen (a) and 100-inch Fresnel lens (b)

Fig. 5. Scanning lithography system for development of large-area gratings^[48]. (a) Schematic of variable period scanning beam interference lithography system; (b)‒(c) images of samples prepared by scanning lithography system developed by MIT

Fig. 6. UV continuous frequency lithography system. (a) Schematic diagram of UV continuous frequency lithography system; (b) schematic diagram of Fourier transform optical system based on phase element modulation^[51]; (c) relationship between the change of photolithographic structure period and the axial movement distance of phase element; (d) SEM image of grating structure with accuracy up to 89 nm; (e) SEM image of pixel type variable period and variable orientation nanograting structure; (f) SEM image of circular grating; (g) SEM image of Fresnel zone structure; (h) SEM image of microporous array; (i) SEM image of micro column array

Fig. 7. UV lithography system featuring phase and intensity modulation. (a) Large-area ultraviolet lithography direct writing equipment for micro/nano 3D structures; (b)‒(d) multi-step lithography structure diagrams

Fig. 8. Several patterned polarization photolithography technologies. (a) Polarization holography technology; (b) polarization modulation direct writing technology; (c) SLM digital polarization technology^[75]; (d) pulsed polarization photolithography technology^[76-77]

Fig. 9. Liquid crystal planar photonic devices based on polarization lithography. (a) Textured pattern of liquid crystal microlens array and its application in fingerprint recognition^[75]; (b) the reflective cholesteric liquid crystal lens samples and schematic diagram of its application in augmented reality system^[79]; (c) polarized light micrograph of achromatic diffractive lens and its achromatic effect^[80]; (d) textured pattern of liquid crystal chiral lens and schematic diagram of its application in polarization imaging^[81]

Fig. 10. Liquid crystal polarization grating based on geometric phase. (a) Schematic diagram of molecular arrangement of liquid crystal polarization grating; (b) high-efficiency and high-quality liquid crystal polarization grating^[74]; (c) textured patterns of polarization gratings with different periods^[74]; (d) schematic diagram of steering design based on liquid crystal polarization grating