Fig. 1. Frame diagram of laser SLAM system

Fig. 2. Modeling diagram. (a) Traditional modeling method; (b) concentric zone model

Fig. 3. Statistical diagram of point cloud distribution range

Fig. 4. Filtered plot of ground segmentation on KITTI sequence 00

Fig. 5. LiDAR odometry framework based on ground segmentation

Fig. 6. Feature extraction process in KITTI sequence 00. (a) Original point cloud; (b) planar features of vertical and horizontal parts of FpkandFgk; (c) vertically distributed edge features in Fek; (d) spherical features in Fsk

Fig. 7. Loop-back detection based on global quasiregistration

Fig. 8. Comparison of trajectories on KITTI dataset. (a1), (b1), and (c1) are comparison of trajectories of sequences 00, 02, and 10; (a2), (b2), and (c2) are detail comparison corresponding to box selections in (a1), (b1), and (c1)

Fig. 9. Outdoor data acquisition ground robot

Fig. 10. Mapping comparison of M2DGR dataset. (a), (b), and (c) are 3D top view map, 3D local map, and 3D local map (z-axis perspective) corresponding to LOAM algorithm; (d), (e), and (f) are 3D top view map, 3D local map, and 3D local map (z-axis perspective) corresponding to LeGO-LOAM algorithm; (g), (h), and (i) are 3D top view map, 3D local map, and 3D local map (z-axis perspective) corresponding to FAST-LIO algorithm; (j), (k), and (l) are 3D top view map, 3D local map, and 3D local map (z-axis perspective) corresponding to proposed algorithm

Fig. 11. 3D mapping of underground mine slope path based on proposed algorithm