Fig. 1. Schematic diagrams of phosphorescence, chemiluminescence of cyclic peroxides, and reactive oxygen species-mediated afterglow luminescence mechanisms. (a) Phosphorescence^［12］; (b) chemiluminescence of cyclic peroxides^［14］; (c) mechanism of afterglow luminescence^［15］

Fig. 2. Schematic diagrams of thiophene-based afterglow luminophores and their luminescence mechanisms^{［23，28］}. (a) Categories of afterglow luminophores based on thiophene structures; (b) taking PEODBT as an example, the afterglow luminescence mechanism of thiophene-based afterglow luminophores

Fig. 3. Schematic diagrams of PPV-based afterglow luminophores and their luminescence mechanisms^［29-30］. (a) Categories of afterglow luminophores in PPV class; (b) the afterglow luminescence mechanism of afterglow luminophores based on PPV-class structures

Fig. 4. Schematic diagrams of the structural categories and luminescence mechanisms for afterglow luminophores AEEs, DO, SO, and CLAs^{［26，32-33］}. (a) Structural schematics of afterglow luminophores including AEEs, DO, SO and CLAs; (b) the afterglow luminescence mechanisms of afterglow luminophores AEEs, DO, SO, and CLAs

Fig. 5. Schematic diagrams of multifunctional integrated luminophores: structural types and emission mechanisms^{［16-17，22，24，27，34］}. (a) Structural schematics of porphyrin, hemicyanine, cyanine, methylene blue derivatives, and trianthracene derivatives; (b) the afterglow luminescence mechanism of HD afterglow luminophores

Fig. 6. Schematic diagrams of the H₂S-responsive afterglow probe design^[41]. (a) Schematic illustration of the sequential activation of afterglow luminescence of DPA-H₂S by H₂S and ¹O₂ generated via ultrasound induction; (b) representative afterglow images and corresponding quantified average afterglow intensity of 50 μmol/L DPA-H₂S incubated with or without 100 μmol/L Na₂S in PBS for 10 min at room temperature; (c) linear relationship between the sonoafterglow intensity of 50 μmol/L DPA-H₂S and Na₂S concentration (0-100 μmol/L); (d) sonoafterglow intensity of 50 μmol/L DPA-H₂S after incubation with different analytes in PBS for 10 min at room temperature

Fig. 7. Schematic diagrams of the afterglow probe design for porphyria detection in whole blood^［49］. （a） Simplified energy level diagram of porphyrin and afterglow reporter gene （FDAG-1）， as well as the photochemical reaction of singlet oxygen generated by porphyrin under 635 nm excitation of FDAG-1 molecules to achieve amplified afterglow emission； （b） schematic diagram of afterglow detection for porphyria in whole blood； （c） corresponding afterglow signal changes of FDAG-1 at 600 nm for different concentrations of spiked PPIX in blood samples； （d） corresponding concentrations of PPIX in healthy individuals and two porphyria patients

Fig. 8. Schematics of the afterglow probe design for immune cell imaging^[60]. (a) Schematic diagram of the synthesis and detection of afterglow nanoparticle RAN; (b) structure of probe NRM and the detection principle for NO; (c) afterglow imaging treated with different modulators using RAN1; (d) tumor afterglow imaging of RAN1 in mice treated with modulators; (e) quantification of the afterglow intensity ratio in Fig. 8(d)

Fig. 9. Schematic design of tumor-imaging afterglow probes^[63]. (a)(b) Schematic diagrams of the synthesis of afterglow probe P-TNPs and its application in in vivo afterglow imaging; (c) organ fluorescence intensities of 4T1 tumor-bearing mice at different time points after intravenous injection of P-TNPs; (d) afterglow imaging of mouse tumors by P-TNPs at different time points

Fig. 10. Schematic of the afterglow probe design for image-guided surgery^[16]. (a) Structure of Ce4 afterglow molecule and schematic diagram of afterglow detection; (b) fluorescence and afterglow signal-to-background ratio of subcutaneously injected NPs-Ce4; (c) schematic diagram of surgical navigation for abdominal metastatic tumors in mice mediated by NPs-Ce4; (d) afterglow intensity of the mouse abdomen recorded at different time points after intravenous injection of NPs-Ce4; (e) afterglow and bright-field images of mice after intravenous injection of NPs-Ce4

Fig. 11. Schematic design of afterglow probes for imaging-guided chemotherapy^[68]. (a) Schematic diagram of the synthesis process of afterglow nanoparticle FCMC; (b) schematic diagram of the mechanism of FCMC for afterglow-monitored chemotherapy; (c) afterglow imaging of FCMC in tumor-bearing mice. (d) correlation analysis between afterglow signal and tumor growth inhibition rate

Fig. 12. Schematic design of afterglow probes for image-guided radiotherapy^[74]. (a) Schematic diagram of the structural composition of the afterglow nanoprobe for APE-1 detection; (b) schematic diagram of APE-1 probe imaging for monitoring radiotherapy; (c) afterglow imaging of the APE-1 probe in mouse tumors; (d) tumor volume in mice under different radiotherapy intensities; (e) correlation of afterglow and MRI signal with radiation dose-dependent APE1 expression, reactive oxygen species production in tumor, DNA damage degree in tumor, and therapeutic effect