Journal of the Chinese Ceramic Society, Volume. 53, Issue 8, 2115(2025)
Research Progress on Recycling Technologies for Cathode Materials of Waste Lithium Batteries
[1] [1] YANG Z J, HUANG H B, LIN F. Sustainable electric vehicle batteries for a sustainable world: Perspectives on battery cathodes, environment, supply chain, manufacturing, life cycle, and policy[J]. Adv Energy Mater, 2022, 12(26): 2200383.
[2] [2] JI H C, WANG J X, MA J, et al. Fundamentals, status and challenges of direct recycling technologies for lithium ion batteries[J]. Chem Soc Rev, 2023, 52(23): 8194-8244.
[3] [3] JIN S, MU D Y, LU Z A, et al. A comprehensive review on the recycling of spent lithium-ion batteries: Urgent status and technology advances[J]. J Clean Prod, 2022, 340: 130535.
[4] [4] WANG J X, MA J, ZHUANG Z F, et al. Toward direct regeneration of spent lithium-ion batteries: A next-generation recycling method[J]. Chem Rev, 2024, 124(5): 2839-2887.
[5] [5] HARPER G, SOMMERVILLE R, KENDRICK E, et al. Recycling lithium-ion batteries from electric vehicles[J]. Nature, 2019, 575(7781): 75-86.
[6] [6] NATARAJAN S, ARAVINDAN V. Burgeoning prospects of spent lithium-ion batteries in multifarious applications[J]. Adv Energy Mater, 2018, 8(33): 1802303.
[7] [7] SOMMERVILLE R, SHAW-STEWART J, GOODSHIP V, et al. A review of physical processes used in the safe recycling of lithium ion batteries[J]. Sustain Mater Technol, 2020, 25: e00197.
[8] [8] SUN J, LI J G, ZHOU T, et al. Toxicity, a serious concern of thermal runaway from commercial Li-ion battery[J]. Nano Energy, 2016, 27: 313-319.
[9] [9] XIAO J H, JIANG C R, WANG B. A review on dynamic recycling of electric vehicle battery: Disassembly and echelon utilization[J]. Batteries, 2023, 9(1): 57.
[10] [10] JUNG J C, SUI P C, ZHANG J J. A review of recycling spent lithium-ion battery cathode materials using hydrometallurgical treatments[J]. J Energy Storage, 2021, 35: 102217.
[11] [11] DA SILVA VASCONCELOS D, TENRIO J A S, BOTELHO A B Jr, et al. Circular recycling strategies for LFP batteries: A review focusing on hydrometallurgy sustainable processing[J]. Metals, 2023, 13(3): 543.
[12] [12] WATSON B, CARLSON B, SMIRNOVA A. Innovative methodology for advanced battery recycling research demonstrated with electrochemical extraction[J]. J Power Sources, 2024, 594: 234025.
[13] [13] DOOSE S, MAYER J K, MICHALOWSKI P, et al. Challenges in ecofriendly battery recycling and closed material cycles: A perspective on future lithium battery generations[J]. Metals, 2021, 11(2): 291.
[14] [14] WU J, XIAO L, LIU P C, et al. Direct regeneration and upcycling of cathode material from spent lithium ion batteries: Recent advances and perspectives[J]. Sep Purif Technol, 2025, 355: 129574.
[15] [15] WEN G D, YUAN S, DONG Z Z, et al. Recycling of spent lithium iron phosphate battery cathode materials: A review[J]. J Clean Prod, 2024, 474: 143625.
[16] [16] HUANG M T, WANG M, YANG L M, et al. Direct regeneration of spent lithium-ion battery cathodes: From theoretical study to production practice[J]. Nanomicro Lett, 2024, 16(1): 207.
[17] [17] CAO Y, LI J F, JI H C, et al. A review of direct recycling methods for spent lithium-ion batteries[J]. Energy Storage Mater, 2024, 70: 103475.
[18] [18] YANG Y, OKONKWO E G, HUANG G Y, et al. On the sustainability of lithium ion battery industry-A review and perspective[J]. Energy Storage Mater, 2021, 36: 186-212.
[19] [19] KAYA M. State-of-the-art lithium-ion battery recycling technologies[J]. Circ Econ, 2022, 1(2): 100015.
[20] [20] JIA K, YANG G R, HE Y J, et al. Degradation mechanisms of electrodes promotes direct regeneration of spent Li-ion batteries: A review[J]. Adv Mater, 2024, 36(23): e2313273.
[21] [21] YU D W, HUANG Z, MAKUZA B, et al. Pretreatment options for the recycling of spent lithium-ion batteries: A comprehensive review[J]. Miner Eng, 2021, 173: 107218.
[22] [22] ZHANG X, LIANG Z Y, MA W J, et al. Pretreatment options for the recycling of spent lithium-ion batteries: A comprehensive review[J]. J Energy Storage, 2023, 72: 108691.
[23] [23] ZHONG X H, LIU W, HAN J W, et al. Pretreatment for the recovery of spent lithium ion batteries: Theoretical and practical aspects[J]. J Clean Prod, 2020, 263: 121439.
[24] [24] YU W H, GUO Y, XU S M, et al. Comprehensive recycling of lithium-ion batteries: Fundamentals, pretreatment, and perspectives[J]. Energy Storage Mater, 2023, 54: 172-220.
[25] [25] KIM S, BANG J, YOO J, et al. A comprehensive review on the pretreatment process in lithium-ion battery recycling[J]. J Clean Prod, 2021, 294: 126329.
[26] [26] ZHAO Y, KANG Y Q, FAN M C, et al. Precise separation of spent lithium-ion cells in water without discharging for recycling[J]. Energy Storage Mater, 2022, 45: 1092-1099.
[27] [27] QING J L, WU X S, ZENG L, et al. Novel approach to recycling of valuable metals from spent lithium-ion batteries using hydrometallurgy, focused on preferential extraction of lithium[J]. J Clean Prod, 2023, 431: 139645.
[28] [28] GAINES L, WANG Y. How to maximize the value recovered from Li-ion batteries: Hydrometallurgical or direct recycling?[J]. Electrochem Soc Interface, 2021, 30(3): 51-54.
[29] [29] CHAGNES A, POSPIECH B. A brief review on hydrometallurgical technologies for recycling spent lithium-ion batteries[J]. J Chemical Tech Biotech, 2013, 88(7): 1191-1199.
[30] [30] WANG J, ZHANG Y Y, YU L H, et al. Effective separation and recovery of valuable metals from waste Ni-based batteries: A comprehensive review[J]. Chem Eng J, 2022, 439: 135767.
[31] [31] YADAV P, JIE C J, TAN S, et al. Recycling of cathode from spent lithium iron phosphate batteries[J]. J Hazard Mater, 2020, 399: 123068.
[32] [32] ZHANG P W, YOKOYAMA T, ITABASHI O, et al. Hydrometallurgical process for recovery of metal values from spent lithium-ion secondary batteries[J]. Hydrometallurgy, 1998, 47(2/3): 259-271.
[33] [33] TUNCUK A, STAZI V, AKCIL A, et al. Aqueous metal recovery techniques from e-scrap: Hydrometallurgy in recycling[J]. Miner Eng, 2012, 25(1): 28-37.
[34] [34] ASSEFI M, MAROUFI S, YAMAUCHI Y, et al. Pyrometallurgical recycling of Li-ion, Ni-Cd and Ni-MH batteries: A minireview[J]. Curr Opin Green Sustain Chem, 2020, 24: 26-31.
[35] [35] MAKUZA B, TIAN Q H, GUO X Y, et al. Pyrometallurgical options for recycling spent lithium-ion batteries: A comprehensive review[J]. J Power Sources, 2021, 491: 229622.
[36] [36] ZHOU M X, LI B, LI J, et al. Pyrometallurgical technology in the recycling of a spent lithium ion battery: Evolution and the challenge[J]. ACS EST Eng, 2021, 1(10): 1369-1382.
[37] [37] XIAO S W, REN G X, XIE M Q, et al. Recovery of valuable metals from spent lithium-ion batteries by smelting reduction process based on MnO-SiO2-Al2O3 slag system[J]. J Sustain Metall, 2017, 3(4): 703-710.
[38] [38] ALI RAJAEIFAR M, RAUGEI M, STEUBING B, et al. Life cycle assessment of lithium-ion battery recycling using pyrometallurgical technologies[J]. J Ind Ecol, 2021, 25(6): 1560-1571.
[39] [39] HOLZER A, WINDISCH-KERN S, PONAK C, et al. Pyrometallurgical treatment of spent lithium-ion batteries[J]. Waste Manage, 2019, 92: 201-210.
[40] [40] WANG W, XIAO F, et al. Recycling of spent lithium-ion batteries by a pyrometallurgical method for environmental sustainability[J]. Mater Sci Eng B, 2023, 276: 115429.
[41] [41] LIAO X J, YE M Y, LIANG J L, et al. Feasibility of reduced iron species for promoting Li and Co recovery from spent LiCoO2 batteries using a mixed-culture bioleaching process[J]. Sci Total Environ, 2022, 830: 154577.
[42] [42] HEYDARIAN A, MOUSAVI S M, VAKILCHAP F, et al. Application of a mixed culture of adapted acidophilic bacteria in two-step bioleaching of spent lithium-ion laptop batteries[J]. J Power Sources, 2018, 378: 19-30.
[43] [43] DO M P, JEGAN ROY J, CAO B, et al. Green closed-loop cathode regeneration from spent NMC-based lithium-ion batteries through bioleaching[J]. ACS Sustainable Chem Eng, 2022, 10(8): 2634-2644.
[44] [44] YUN S, JUNG H, LEE H J, et al. Bioleaching of valuable metals from three cathode active materials comprising lithium nickel cobalt manganese (NCM) oxide using indigenous microorganisms[J]. J Ind Eng Chem, 2024, 135: 552-560.
[45] [45] LI J, FENG X, SHI G, et al. Sustainable recovery of critical materials from spent lithium-ion batteries using green leaching technology[J]. J Sustain Metall, 2023, 9: 789-804.
[46] [46] PADWAL C, PHAM H D, JADHAV S, et al. Deep eutectic solvents: Green approach for cathode recycling of Li-ion batteries[J]. Adv Energy Sustain Res, 2022, 3(1): 2100133.
[47] [47] TRAN M K, RODRIGUES M F, KATO K, et al. Deep eutectic solvents for cathode recycling of Li-ion batteries[J]. Nat Energy, 2019, 4: 339-345.
[48] [48] WANG J X, ZHANG Q, SHENG J Z, et al. Direct and green repairing of degraded LiCoO2 for reuse in lithium-ion batteries[J]. Natl Sci Rev, 2022, 9(8): nwac097.
[49] [49] KITYK A, PAVLIK V, HNATKO M. Reshaping the future of battery waste: Deep eutectic solvents in Li-ion battery recycling[J]. J Energy Storage, 2024, 97: 112990.
[50] [50] LIU C W, LIN J, CAO H B, et al. Recycling of spent lithium-ion batteries in view of lithium recovery: A critical review[J]. J Clean Prod, 2019, 228: 801-813.
[51] [51] TAN D H S, XU P P, CHEN Z. Enabling sustainable critical materials for battery storage through efficient recycling and improved design: A perspective[J]. MRS Energy Sustain, 2020, 7(1): 27.
[52] [52] NIE H H, XU L, SONG D W, et al. LiCoO2: Recycling from spent batteries and regeneration with solid state synthesis[J]. Green Chem, 2015, 17(2): 1276-1280.
[53] [53] LI J, HU L S, ZHOU H M, et al. Regenerating of LiNi0.5Co0.2Mn0.3O2 cathode materials from spent lithium-ion batteries[J]. J Mater Sci Mater Electron, 2018, 29(20): 17661-17669.
[54] [54] JI G J, WANG J X, LIANG Z, et al. Direct regeneration of degraded lithium-ion battery cathodes with a multifunctional organic lithium salt[J]. Nat Commun, 2023, 14(1): 584.
[55] [55] SHI R Y, ZHENG N Z, JI H C, et al. Homogeneous repair of highly degraded Ni-rich cathode material with spent lithium anode[J]. Adv Mater, 2024, 36(13): e2311553.
[56] [56] JO S, HAN J, SEO S, et al. Solid-state reaction heterogeneity during calcination of lithium-ion battery cathode[J]. Adv Mater, 2023, 35(10): e2207076.
[57] [57] SHI Y, CHEN G, LIU F, et al. Resolving the compositional and structural defects of degraded LiNixCoyMnzO2 particles to directly regenerate high-performance lithium-ion battery cathodes[J]. ACS Energy Lett, 2018, 3(7): 1683-1692.
[58] [58] LIU Y, YU H J, WANG Y, et al. Microwave hydrothermal renovating and reassembling spent lithium cobalt oxide for lithium-ion battery[J]. Waste Manag, 2022, 143: 186-194.
[59] [59] JING Q K, ZHANG J L, LIU Y B, et al. Direct regeneration of spent LiFePO4 cathode material by a green and efficient one-step hydrothermal method[J]. ACS Sustainable Chem Eng, 2020, 8(48): 17622-17628.
[60] [60] TANG D, JI G, WANG J, et al. A multifunctional amino acid enables direct recycling of spent LiFePO4 cathode material[J]. Adv Mater, 2024, 36(5): e2309722.
[61] [61] LAN Y, LI X, ZHOU G, et al. Direct regenerating cathode materials from spent lithium-ion batteries[J]. Adv Sci (Weinh), 2024, 11(1): e2304425.
[62] [62] GAO H P, YAN Q Z, XU P P, et al. Efficient direct recycling of degraded LiMn2O4 cathodes by one-step hydrothermal relithiation[J]. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces, 2020, 12(46): 51546-51554.
[63] [63] QIN Z Y, ZHANG Y, LUO W Q, et al. A universal molten salt method for direct upcycling of spent Ni-rich cathode towards single-crystalline Li-rich cathode[J]. Angew Chem Int Ed, 2023, 62(25): e202218672.
[64] [64] WANG J X, LIANG Z, ZHAO Y, et al. Direct conversion of degraded LiCoO2 cathode materials into high-performance LiCoO2: A closed-loop green recycling strategy for spent lithium-ion batteries[J]. Energy Storage Mater, 2022, 45: 768-776.
[65] [65] YANG J, WANG W Y, YANG H M, et al. One-pot compositional and structural regeneration of degraded LiCoO2 for directly reusing it as a high-performance lithium-ion battery cathode[J]. Green Chem, 2020, 22(19): 6489-6496.
[66] [66] MA J, WANG J X, JIA K, et al. Adaptable eutectic salt for the direct recycling of highly degraded layer cathodes[J]. J Am Chem Soc, 2022, 144(44): 20306-20314.
[67] [67] LIU X, WANG M M, DENG L P, et al. Direct regeneration of spent lithium iron phosphateviaa low-temperature molten salt process coupled with a reductive environment[J]. Ind Eng Chem Res, 2022, 61(11): 3831-3839.
[68] [68] SHI Y, ZHANG M H, MENG Y S, et al. Ambient-pressure relithiation of degraded LixNi0.5Co0.2Mn0.3O2 (0<x<1)viaeutectic solutions for direct regeneration of lithium-ion battery cathodes[J]. Adv Energy Mater, 2019, 9(20): 1900454.
[69] [69] CHEN X Q, FENG Y Y, ZHANG S, et al. Comparison study on regeneration of spent ternary materials by molten salt solid-liquid method and traditional solid-solid method[J]. J Alloys Compd, 2022, 900: 163308.
[70] [70] LI X, ZHANG L, WANG Q, et al. A review of emerging technologies for battery recycling[J]. Energy Stor Mater, 2023, 56: 173-188.
[71] [71] HONG X, LI H, ZHANG Y, et al. Lithium-ion battery recycling: Current status and future prospects[J]. Waste Manage, 2022, 118: 63-72.
[72] [72] LIU F, LI H, ZHOU C, et al. Mechanisms and technologies for recycling spent lithium-ion batteries[J]. Energy Stor Mater, 2024, 65: 47-56.
[73] [73] LI X H, LIU S W, YANG J C, et al. Electrochemical methods contribute to the recycling and regeneration path of lithium-ion batteries[J]. Energy Storage Mater, 2023, 55: 606-630.
[74] [74] FAN M, MENG Q H, CHANG X, et al.In situelectrochemical regeneration of degraded LiFePO4 electrode with functionalized prelithiation separator[J]. Adv Energy Mater, 2022, 12(18): 2103630.
[75] [75] ZHU W, ZHAO Y, LU L, et al. Current advances in the recycling of spent lithium-ion batteries[J]. J Hazard Mater, 2023, 442: 129732.
[76] [76] NEUMANN J, PETRANIKOVA M, MEEUS M, et al. Recycling of lithium-ion batteries: Current state of the art, circular economy, and next generation recycling[J]. Adv Energy Mater, 2022, 12(17): 2102917.
[77] [77] THOMPSON D L, HARTLEY J M, LAMBERT S M, et al. The importance of design in lithium ion battery recycling-a critical review[J]. Green Chem, 2020, 22(22): 7585-7603.
[78] [78] GAUTAM M, ROHIT J, ARUNABH M, et al. A review on recycling of lithium-ion batteries to recover critical metals[J]. J Environ Chem Eng, 2022, 10(6): 108534.
[79] [79] XIONG S Q, JI J P, MA X M. Environmental and economic evaluation of remanufacturing lithium-ion batteries from electric vehicles[J]. Waste Manag, 2020, 102: 579-586.
[80] [80] ZHANG J, ZHAO J, XU X, et al. Advances in the recycling of spent lithium-ion batteries: Technologies and prospects[J]. J Mater Chem A, 2021, 9(35): 20356-20373.
[81] [81] TAO S Y, MA R F, ZHAO Z X, et al. Generative learning assisted state-of-health estimation for sustainable battery recycling with random retirement conditions[J]. Nat Commun, 2024, 15(1): 10154.
Get Citation
Copy Citation Text
LI Jiajun, WANG Junxiong, ZHOU Guangmin. Research Progress on Recycling Technologies for Cathode Materials of Waste Lithium Batteries[J]. Journal of the Chinese Ceramic Society, 2025, 53(8): 2115
Special Issue:
Received: Dec. 10, 2024
Accepted: Sep. 5, 2025
Published Online: Sep. 5, 2025
The Author Email: ZHOU Guangmin (guangminzhou@sz.tsinghua.edu.cn)