Researching | Recent advances in femtosecond laser direct writing of three-dimensional periodic photonic structures in transparent materials

Advanced Photonics, Volume. 7, Issue 3, 034002(2025)

Recent advances in femtosecond laser direct writing of three-dimensional periodic photonic structures in transparent materials

Bin Zhang, Wenchao Yan^*, and Feng Chen^*

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Shandong University, School of Physics, State Key Laboratory of Crystal Materials, Jinan, China

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Fig. 1. Comparison of second-harmonic build-up ( $P_{2 ω}$ ) under the same propagation length ( $z / l_{c}$ ) in domain-modification-based (i.e., $v = 0.5$ or 0.75) NPCs, domain-erasure-based (i.e., $v = 0$ ) NPCs, and domain-inversion-based (i.e., $v = - 1$ ) NPCs. The cases for perfect PM and phase mismatching (i.e., $v = 1$ ) are also drawn in this picture. Reproduced with permission from Ref. 114.

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Fig. 2. Domain-modification-based quasi-3D NPCs in ${LiNbO}_{3}$ crystals. (a) The setup for fabricating quasi-3D NPCs. (b) The fabrication routine of quasi-3D NPCs. (c) The end-face microscopic image of quasi-3D NPCs. Reproduced with permission from Ref. 112.

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Fig. 3. Truly 3D NPCs written by femtosecond laser in ${LiNbO}_{3}$ crystals. (a) The Čerenkov second-harmonic microscopic image of the first two layers in 3D NPCs. (b) The confocal second-harmonic microscopic image obtained from non-engineered (i.e., un-erased) and engineered (i.e., erased) areas. (c) The second-harmonic intensity distribution along the black line in panel (b). Reproduced with permission from Ref. 2.

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Fig. 4. First domain-inversion-based truly 3D NPCs in ferroelectric BCT crystals. Panels (a) and (b) demonstrate the reciprocal lattice vectors of 2D NPCs and 3D NPCs, respectively. (c) The Čerenkov second-harmonic microscopic image of 3D NPCs. Reproduced with permission from Ref. 1.

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$Femtosecond-laser-induced nanodomains in LiNbO3 crystals. (a) The 3D model of ruler-shaped nanodomains. Panels (b) and (c) show the PFM images on cross-sections of this ruler. (d) The PFM image of wide-angle nonlinear diffraction grating. The measured nonlinear Raman–Nath diffraction pattern is displayed in the inset. Reproduced with permission from Ref. 110.$

Fig. 5. Femtosecond-laser-induced nanodomains in ${LiNbO}_{3}$ crystals. (a) The 3D model of ruler-shaped nanodomains. Panels (b) and (c) show the PFM images on cross-sections of this ruler. (d) The PFM image of wide-angle nonlinear diffraction grating. The measured nonlinear Raman–Nath diffraction pattern is displayed in the inset. Reproduced with permission from Ref. 110.

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Fig. 6. APP PM for nonlinear frequency conversion. (a) The schematic of birefringent PM in negative uniaxial crystals. (b) The schematic of quasi-PM in ferroelectric crystals. (c) The schematic of APP PM in arbitrary nonlinear optical crystals. (d) The amplitude of the second-harmonic field under PM, quasi-PM, APP PM, and phase mismatching. Reproduced with permission from Ref. 108.

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$Femtosecond-laser-induced type-I and type-II modifications in LiNbO3 crystals. Panels (a) and (d) show refractive-index profiles of type-I modification and type-II modification, respectively. Panels (b) and (e) demonstrate refractive-index profiles at horizontal cross-sections in panels (a) and (d). Panels (c) and (f) are mode profiles at 633 nm, corresponding to modifications in panels (a) and (d), respectively. Reproduced with permission from Ref. 3.$

Fig. 7. Femtosecond-laser-induced type-I and type-II modifications in ${LiNbO}_{3}$ crystals. Panels (a) and (d) show refractive-index profiles of type-I modification and type-II modification, respectively. Panels (b) and (e) demonstrate refractive-index profiles at horizontal cross-sections in panels (a) and (d). Panels (c) and (f) are mode profiles at 633 nm, corresponding to modifications in panels (a) and (d), respectively. Reproduced with permission from Ref. 3.

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Fig. 8. Schematic of typical 3D NPCs written by tightly focused femtosecond laser in nonlinear optical crystals.

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Fig. 9. Femtosecond-laser-written NPCs in ${LiNbO}_{3}$ crystals for photon pair generation. (a) The experimental setup for fabricating periodically-inverted domain structures in Ti-indiffused ${LiNbO}_{3}$ waveguides. (b) Optical microscopic image of 2D periodically inverted domain structures. The small circles represent inverted domains. (c) The 3D profile of periodically inverted domain structures acquired by Čerenkov second-harmonic microscopy. Reproduced with permission from Ref. 125.

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Fig. 10. The 2nd to 5th harmonic generation of 1030 nm in femtosecond-laser-written quartz NPCs. (a) The optical microscopic image of laser-written quartz NPCs. (b) The period length distribution of quartz NPCs. (c) The experimental setup for generating the 2nd to 5th harmonic generation of 1030 nm. (d) The photograph of the 2nd to 4th harmonic generation. Reproduced with permission from Ref. 127.

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$Second harmonic Hermite-Gaussian beam generation in femtosecond-laser-written 3D LiNbO3 NPCs. (a) The model and confocal second harmonic image of 3D LiNbO3 NPCs. (b) The second harmonic diffraction patterns pumped at 818 nm. (c) The dependence of the 1st-diffraction-order output power on fundamental wavelength. (d) The dependence of output power of second harmonic Hermite-Gaussian beam on fundamental power at 818 nm. Reproduced with permission from Ref. 111.$

Fig. 11. Second harmonic Hermite-Gaussian beam generation in femtosecond-laser-written 3D ${LiNbO}_{3}$ NPCs. (a) The model and confocal second harmonic image of 3D ${LiNbO}_{3}$ NPCs. (b) The second harmonic diffraction patterns pumped at 818 nm. (c) The dependence of the 1st-diffraction-order output power on fundamental wavelength. (d) The dependence of output power of second harmonic Hermite-Gaussian beam on fundamental power at 818 nm. Reproduced with permission from Ref. 111.

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$Femtosecond-laser-written two-sequential 3D NPCs in LiNbO3 crystals for simultaneously reconstructing multiple second harmonic structured beams. (a) The schematic of quasi-PM mechanism for reconstructing multiple second harmonic structured beams at a single wavelength. (b) The schematic of two-sequential 3D NPCs for simultaneously reconstructing second harmonic structured beams composed of vortex beams and hexagonal diffracted beams. (c) Second harmonic structured beams emitted from the 3D NPCs, which are pumped with 834 nm. Reproduced with permission from Ref. 98.$

Fig. 12. Femtosecond-laser-written two-sequential 3D NPCs in ${LiNbO}_{3}$ crystals for simultaneously reconstructing multiple second harmonic structured beams. (a) The schematic of quasi-PM mechanism for reconstructing multiple second harmonic structured beams at a single wavelength. (b) The schematic of two-sequential 3D NPCs for simultaneously reconstructing second harmonic structured beams composed of vortex beams and hexagonal diffracted beams. (c) Second harmonic structured beams emitted from the 3D NPCs, which are pumped with 834 nm. Reproduced with permission from Ref. 98.

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Fig. 13. Nonlinear detour phase holography in femtosecond-laser-written SBN NPCs. (a) The schematic of the experimental setup for nonlinear holographic imaging. (b) The measured H-shaped far-field SHG holographic image. (c) The simulated SHG intensity distribution in the far-field. (d) The simulated result improved with a phase plate. Reproduced with permission from Ref. 89.

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Fig. 14. Large field-of-view nonlinear holography in femtosecond-laser-written ${LiNbO}_{3}$ NPCs. (a) The reconstruction of a cube at the second harmonic wave, corresponding to view angles of $- 45 \deg$ , $- 15 \deg$ , 15 deg, and 45 deg. (b) The large-area hexagonal array is formed by combining the central, first, and higher orders of second harmonic fields. Reproduced with permission from Ref. 100.

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Fig. 15. Schematic of typical 3D waveguide arrays written by tightly focused femtosecond laser in transparent materials.

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Fig. 16. Topological photonics in femtosecond-laser-written waveguides. (a) Floquet TIs in a honeycomb lattice consist of helical waveguides. (b) Experimental observation of topological chiral edge states. (a), (b) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 161. (c) 3D Floquet TIs with photonic waveguides. (d) Experimental observation of the evolution of edge-wave packets in the 3D synthetic-space TI. (c), (d) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 175. (e) Fractal TIs in a fourth-generation Sierpinski lattice. (f) Experimental observation of topological edge transport in the Sierpinski lattice. (e), (f) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 176. (g) HOTIs in 2D SSH lattice. (h) Experimental observation of topological corner states. (g), (h) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 177.

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Fig. 17. Non-Hermitian photonics in femtosecond-laser-written waveguides. (a) Passive PT-symmetric system in 1D femtosecond-laser-written waveguides. (a) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 192. (b) 2D PT-symmetric graphene lattice. (b) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 191. (c) Floquet PT-symmetry in photonic waveguides. (c) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 196. (d) PT-symmetric photonic Floquet TI. (d) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 197. (e) Schematic of Floquet non-Hermitian skin effect in a 1D optical array. (f) Experimental results of the non-Hermitian skin effect. (e), (f) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 198.

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$Quantum photonics in femtosecond-laser-written waveguides. (a) PT-symmetric quantum interference in a coupled two-waveguide system. (a) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 205. (b) Dynamically localized quantum optical states in photonic lattice contain three waveguides. (b) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 206. (c) Quantum transport in the fractal lattice. (c) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 207. (d) 3D non-Abelian quantum holonomy. (d) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 208.$

Fig. 18. Quantum photonics in femtosecond-laser-written waveguides. (a) PT-symmetric quantum interference in a coupled two-waveguide system. (a) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 205. (b) Dynamically localized quantum optical states in photonic lattice contain three waveguides. (b) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 206. (c) Quantum transport in the fractal lattice. (c) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 207. (d) 3D non-Abelian quantum holonomy. (d) Reproduced with permission from Ref. 208.

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Table 1. Comparison of similarities and differences among three domain-modulation scenarios.

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Table 1. Comparison of similarities and differences among three domain-modulation scenarios.


Modulation categories	Relative ratio	Crystalline/amorphous	Conversion efficiency	Repetition rate	Thermal effect
Domain modification	$0 < v < 1$	Partially amorphous	Low	Low	Negligible
Domain erasure	$v = 0$	Completely amorphous	High	Low	Negligible
Domain inversion	$v = - 1$	Crystalline	Higher	High	Non-negligible

Table 2. Summary of the latest results for nonlinear frequency conversion in femtosecond-laser-written NPCs.

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Table 2. Summary of the latest results for nonlinear frequency conversion in femtosecond-laser-written NPCs.


Nonlinear crystals	Laser-processing parameters of NPCs	Modulation categories	Parameters of pump laser	Waveguide configurations	Conversion mechanisms	Parameters of output laser	Ref.
Central wavelength	Pulse duration	Repetition rate	Laser wavelength	Laser regime	Laser wavelength	Laser power	Conversion efficiency
${LiNbO}_{3}$	800 nm	170 fs	100 kHz	Domain modification	1545 nm	Pulsed	None	SHG	773 nm	$> 1 μ W$	—	112
800 nm	104 fs	1 kHz	Domain erasure	829 nm	Pulsed	None	SHG	415 nm	$180 μ W$	$2.3 \times 10^{- 4}$	2
800 nm	120 fs	1 kHz	Domain modification	1064 nm	Pulsed	Depressed-cladding waveguide	SHG	532 nm	25.1 W	$0.0637 % W^{- 1} {cm}^{- 2}$	123
800 nm	180 fs	76 MHz	Domain inversion	815 nm	Pulsed	Ti-indiffused waveguide	SHG	408 nm	15.28 mW	17.45%	103
800 nm	180 fs	76 MHz	Domain inversion	406 nm	Pulsed	Ti-indiffused waveguide	SPDC	812 nm	—	—	125
1030 nm	500 fs	1 kHz	Domain modification	1064 nm	Pulsed	Double-line waveguide	SHG	532 nm	1 mW	$8.76 % W^{- 1} {cm}^{- 2}$	128
800 nm	110 fs	1 kHz	Domain modification	1064 nm	Pulsed	Depressed-cladding waveguide	SHG	532 nm	7 W	2.4%	114
BCT	815 nm	180 fs	76 MHz	Domain inversion	1340 nm	Pulsed	None	SHG	670 nm	2.3 W	$1.7 \times 10^{- 6} W^{- 1} {cm}^{- 1}$	1
PMN-38PT	800 nm	180 fs	80 MHz	Domain inversion	1035 nm	Pulsed	None	SHG	518 nm	$71.38 μ W$	—	129
Quartz crystals	1040 nm	350 fs	200 kHz	Nonlinearity erasure	355 nm	Pulsed	None	SHG	177.3 nm	$20.4 μ W$	1‰	108
1030 nm	240 fs	200 kHz	Nonlinearity erasure	442 to 664 nm	Pulsed	None	SHG	221 to 332 nm	1.46 kW	1.01%	115
1030 nm	240 fs	200 kHz	Nonlinearity erasure	335.6 nm and 355 nm	Pulsed	None	SHG	167.8 nm and 177.3 nm	30.42 mW and 1.1 mW	1.46‰ and 1.7‰	116
1030 nm	240 fs	1 MHz	Nonlinearity erasure	1030 nm	Pulsed	None	2nd to 5th harmonic generation	515 nm, 343.3 nm, 257.5 nm, and 206 nm	25.92 mW	2.7%	127

Table 3. Summary of the latest results for nonlinear beam shaping in femtosecond-laser-written NPCs.

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Table 3. Summary of the latest results for nonlinear beam shaping in femtosecond-laser-written NPCs.


Nonlinear crystals	Laser-processing parameters of NPCs	Modulation categories	Parameters of pump laser	Beam-shaping mechanisms	Parameters of output laser	Ref.
Central wavelength	Pulse duration	Repetition rate	Laser mode	Laser wavelength	Laser regime	Laser mode	Laser wavelength
${LiNbO}_{3}$	800 nm	104 fs	1 kHz	Domain erasure	Gaussian beams	820 nm, 818 nm, 802 nm, and 781 nm	Pulsed	SHG	Vortex and Hermite-Gaussian beams	410 nm, 409 nm, 401 nm, and 391 nm	111
1030 nm	500 fs	1 kHz	Domain erasure	Gaussian beams	1064 nm	Pulsed	SHG	Hermite-Gaussian beams	532 nm	131
800 nm	110 fs	1 kHz	Domain modification	Gaussian beams	1064 nm	Pulsed	SHG	Vortex beams	532 nm	114
800 nm	104 fs	1 kHz	Domain erasure	Gaussian beams	857 nm, 837 nm, 834 nm, 831 nm, 827 nm, and 784 nm	Pulsed	SHG	Hexagonal diffracted, Hermite-Gaussian, and vortex beams	429 nm, 419 nm, 417 nm, 416 nm, 414 nm, and 392 nm	98
1026 nm	190 fs	200 kHz	Domain modification	Gaussian beams	1030 nm	Pulsed	SHG	Flat-top beams	515 nm	130
CBN	800 nm	180 fs	76 MHz	Domain inversion	Gaussian beams	1600 nm and 1550 nm	Pulsed	SHG	Vortex, Gaussian, and conical beams	800 nm and 775 nm	88
780 nm	180 fs	76 MHz	Domain inversion	Gaussian beams	1200 nm	Pulsed and continuous-wave	SHG	Vortex beams	600 nm	109
SBN	800 nm	180 fs	76 MHz	Domain inversion	Gaussian beams	1560 nm	Pulsed	SHG	Vortex beams	780 nm	132
780 nm	180 fs	76 MHz	Domain inversion	Gaussian beams	1560 nm	Pulsed	SHG	Optical bottle beams	780 nm	99
800 nm	180 fs	76 MHz	Domain inversion	Gaussian beams	1340 nm, 1390 nm, 1430 nm, 1480 nm, and 1550 nm	Pulsed	SHG	Vortex and Hermite-Gaussian beams	670 nm, 695 nm, 715 nm, 740 nm, and 775 nm	97

Table 4. Summary of the latest results for nonlinear holography in femtosecond-laser-written NPCs.

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Table 4. Summary of the latest results for nonlinear holography in femtosecond-laser-written NPCs.


Nonlinear crystals	Laser-processing parameters of NPCs	Modulation categories	Parameters of pump laser	Holography mechanisms	Holographic performances	Ref.
Central wavelength	Pulse duration	Repetition rate	Laser wavelength	Laser regime
${LiNbO}_{3}$	800 nm	104 fs	1 kHz	Domain erasure	746–875 nm	Pulsed	SHG	Quasi-phase-matching-division multiplexing holography	102
800 nm	75 fs	80 MHz	Domain inversion	840 nm, 900 nm, 975 nm, 1064 nm, and 1342 nm	Pulsed	Frequency up-conversion	Nano-resolution 3D nonlinear hologram	101
800 nm	75 fs	80 MHz	Domain inversion	800 nm	Pulsed	SHG	Large field-of-view nonlinear holography	100
CBN	800 nm	180 fs	76 MHz	Domain inversion	1560 nm	Pulsed	SHG	3D nonlinear volume hologram	134
SBN	800 nm	180 fs	76 MHz	Domain inversion	810 nm	Pulsed	SHG	Nonlinear detour phase holography	89

Table 5. Summary of typical photonic applications of femtosecond-laser-written waveguide arrays.

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Table 5. Summary of typical photonic applications of femtosecond-laser-written waveguide arrays.


Application fields	Material platforms	Structure design	Model dimensionality	Hermitian/non-Hermitian	Excitation sources	Ref.
Topological photonics	Fused silica	Time-varying	2D	Hermitian	Laser beam (633 nm)	161
Fused silica	Time-varying	3D	Laser beam (633 nm)	175
Borosilicate	Time-invariant	2D	Laser beam (720 nm)	180
Non-Hermitian photonics	Fused silica	“Wiggling” waveguides	1D	Non-Hermitian	Laser beam (633 nm)	192
Fused silica	Artificial scatterers	2D	Laser beam (633 nm)	191
Borosilicate	“Intermittent” waveguides	2D	Laser beam (635 nm)	195
Quantum photonics	Borosilicate	Time-varying	1D	Hermitian	Single-photon (808 nm)	214
Fused silica	Time-invariant	2D	Photons (810 nm)	207

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Bin Zhang, Wenchao Yan, Feng Chen, "Recent advances in femtosecond laser direct writing of three-dimensional periodic photonic structures in transparent materials," Adv. Photon. 7, 034002 (2025)

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Paper Information

Category: Reviews

Received: Oct. 15, 2024

Accepted: Mar. 12, 2025

Published Online: Apr. 16, 2025

The Author Email: Yan Wenchao (yanwenchao@sdu.edu.cn), Chen Feng (drfchen@sdu.edu.cn)

DOI:10.1117/1.AP.7.3.034002

CSTR:32187.14.1.AP.7.3.034002

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laser devices and laser physics

Lasers and Laser Optics

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