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Acta Optica Sinica, Volume. 44, Issue 15, 1513017(2024)

Latest Research Progress in Silicon-Based Modulators (Invited)

Changhao Han1,2, Haoyu Wang3, Haowen Shu1,5,7, Jun Qin6, and Xingjun Wang1,4,5,7、*
Author Affiliations
  • 1SKL of Advanced Optical Communication Systems and Networks, School of Electronics, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
  • 2Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of California, Santa Barbara (UCSB), Santa Barbara93106, California , USA
  • 3School of Integrated Circuits, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
  • 4Yangtze Delta Institute of Optoelectronics, Peking University, Nantong 226010, Jiangsu , China
  • 5Frontiers Science Center for Nano-Optoelectronics, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
  • 6Information and Communication System Laboratory, Beijing Information Science and Technology University, Beijing 100101, China
  • 7Peng Cheng Laboratory, Shenzhen 518055, Guangdong , China
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    Figures & Tables(14)
    Silicon-based MZM structure. (a) MOS capacitor structure[20]; (b) depletion type vertical PN junction structure[21]; (c) positive biased PIN junction structure[22]; (d) depletion type transverse PN junction structure[23]; (e) design of modulator electrode[23]; (f) interleaved PN junction structure[25]

    Fig. 1. Silicon-based MZM structure. (a) MOS capacitor structure[20]; (b) depletion type vertical PN junction structure[21]; (c) positive biased PIN junction structure[22]; (d) depletion type transverse PN junction structure[23]; (e) design of modulator electrode[23]; (f) interleaved PN junction structure[25]

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    Silicon-based MZM for high-order signal transmission. (a) Single-drive silicon MZM[27]; (b) silicon-based IQ modulator for QPSK signal transmission[28]; (c) silicon-based modulator and system for PDM-QPSK signal transmission[29]; (d) PDM-QPSK and PDM-16-QAM signal transmission results[30]

    Fig. 2. Silicon-based MZM for high-order signal transmission. (a) Single-drive silicon MZM[27]; (b) silicon-based IQ modulator for QPSK signal transmission[28]; (c) silicon-based modulator and system for PDM-QPSK signal transmission[29]; (d) PDM-QPSK and PDM-16-QAM signal transmission results[30]

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    Large-bandwidth silicon MZM. (a) Silicon-based modulator with periodic segmented electrodes[31]; (b) bandwidth results after using segmented electrodes[31]; (c) silicon substrate etching and removing process[32]; (d) large-bandwidth silicon optoelectronic hybrid packaging system[33]; (e) large-bandwidth silicon segmented modulator[34]; (f) experimental results of ultrahigh-speed signal transmission[34]

    Fig. 3. Large-bandwidth silicon MZM. (a) Silicon-based modulator with periodic segmented electrodes[31]; (b) bandwidth results after using segmented electrodes[31]; (c) silicon substrate etching and removing process[32]; (d) large-bandwidth silicon optoelectronic hybrid packaging system[33]; (e) large-bandwidth silicon segmented modulator[34]; (f) experimental results of ultrahigh-speed signal transmission[34]

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    Silicon-based MRM structure. (a) Carrier-injection silicon MRM[35]; (b) carrier-depletion silicon MRM[36]; (c) low-energy-consumption silicon MRM[37]

    Fig. 4. Silicon-based MRM structure. (a) Carrier-injection silicon MRM[35]; (b) carrier-depletion silicon MRM[36]; (c) low-energy-consumption silicon MRM[37]

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    Large-bandwidth silicon MRM. (a) Tunable large-bandwidth silicon MRM and its experimental results[38]; (b) optoelectronic integrated system based on large-bandwidth silicon MRM[39]; (c) ultra-large-bandwidth silicon MRM[40]

    Fig. 5. Large-bandwidth silicon MRM. (a) Tunable large-bandwidth silicon MRM and its experimental results[38]; (b) optoelectronic integrated system based on large-bandwidth silicon MRM[39]; (c) ultra-large-bandwidth silicon MRM[40]

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    Silicon-based photonic crystal modulators. (a) Ultra-small silicon-based photonic crystal modulators with double/single phase shift arms[44]; (b) silicon-based photonic crystal IQ modulator[46]; (c) silicon-based photonic crystal segmented modulator[46]; (d) all C-band silicon photonic crystal modulator[47]; (e) large-bandwidth silicon photonic crystal modulator with improved electrode design[48]

    Fig. 6. Silicon-based photonic crystal modulators. (a) Ultra-small silicon-based photonic crystal modulators with double/single phase shift arms[44]; (b) silicon-based photonic crystal IQ modulator[46]; (c) silicon-based photonic crystal segmented modulator[46]; (d) all C-band silicon photonic crystal modulator[47]; (e) large-bandwidth silicon photonic crystal modulator with improved electrode design[48]

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    Silicon-based waveguide grating modulators. (a) One-dimensional grating structure in silicon-based modulator[50]; (b) dual port silicon waveguide grating modulator[52]; (c) dual phase-shifting structure silicon waveguide grating modulator[53]; (d) ultra-high modulation efficiency silicon waveguide grating modulator[54]; (e) silicon-based waveguide grating segmented modulator[55]

    Fig. 7. Silicon-based waveguide grating modulators. (a) One-dimensional grating structure in silicon-based modulator[50]; (b) dual port silicon waveguide grating modulator[52]; (c) dual phase-shifting structure silicon waveguide grating modulator[53]; (d) ultra-high modulation efficiency silicon waveguide grating modulator[54]; (e) silicon-based waveguide grating segmented modulator[55]

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    Ultra-large-bandwidth slow-light silicon modulator. (a) Ultra-compact and large-bandwidth slow-light silicon modulator[56-57]; (b) performance of ultra-compact and large-bandwidth slow-light silicon modulator[56-57]; (c) single wavelength PAM-4 eye diagrams using 110 GHz slow-light silicon modulator[58]

    Fig. 8. Ultra-large-bandwidth slow-light silicon modulator. (a) Ultra-compact and large-bandwidth slow-light silicon modulator[56-57]; (b) performance of ultra-compact and large-bandwidth slow-light silicon modulator[56-57]; (c) single wavelength PAM-4 eye diagrams using 110 GHz slow-light silicon modulator[58]

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    Silicon-based germanium modulators. (a) GeSi electro-absorption modulator based on FK effect[59]; (b) GeSi modulator based on Ge/Si heterojunction structure[60]; (c) structural dimensions of GeSi electro-absorption modulator[61]; (d) photograph of large-bandwidth GeSi modulator[62]; (e) ultra-high-speed GeSi electro-absorption modulator[63]

    Fig. 9. Silicon-based germanium modulators. (a) GeSi electro-absorption modulator based on FK effect[59]; (b) GeSi modulator based on Ge/Si heterojunction structure[60]; (c) structural dimensions of GeSi electro-absorption modulator[61]; (d) photograph of large-bandwidth GeSi modulator[62]; (e) ultra-high-speed GeSi electro-absorption modulator[63]

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    Silicon-based organic polymer modulators. (a) Large-bandwidth silicon-organic hybrid modulator[64]; (b) submillimeter silicon-organic hybrid modulator[65]; (c) high-temperature-resistant silicon-organic hybrid modulator[66]; (d) high-temperature-resistant and low-drive-voltage silicon-organic hybrid modulator[67]; (e) large-bandwidth and high-temperature-resistant plasmonic silicon-organic hybrid MRM[68]

    Fig. 10. Silicon-based organic polymer modulators. (a) Large-bandwidth silicon-organic hybrid modulator[64]; (b) submillimeter silicon-organic hybrid modulator[65]; (c) high-temperature-resistant silicon-organic hybrid modulator[66]; (d) high-temperature-resistant and low-drive-voltage silicon-organic hybrid modulator[67]; (e) large-bandwidth and high-temperature-resistant plasmonic silicon-organic hybrid MRM[68]

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    Silicon-based thin-film lithium niobate modulators. (a) Silicon-based thin-film lithium niobate modulator operating at CMOS-compatible voltage[69]; (b) large-bandwidth silicon-based thin-film lithium niobate modulator[71]; (c) segmented electrode silicon-based thin-film lithium niobate modulator[72]; (d) silicon dual-polarization thin-film lithium niobate IQ modulator[73]; (e) silicon hybrid integrated thin-film lithium niobate modulator[77]; (f) silicon hybrid integrated thin-film lithium niobate IQ modulator[80]

    Fig. 11. Silicon-based thin-film lithium niobate modulators. (a) Silicon-based thin-film lithium niobate modulator operating at CMOS-compatible voltage[69]; (b) large-bandwidth silicon-based thin-film lithium niobate modulator[71]; (c) segmented electrode silicon-based thin-film lithium niobate modulator[72]; (d) silicon dual-polarization thin-film lithium niobate IQ modulator[73]; (e) silicon hybrid integrated thin-film lithium niobate modulator[77]; (f) silicon hybrid integrated thin-film lithium niobate IQ modulator[80]

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    Silicon-based two-dimension material modulators. (a) Graphene microdisk thermooptical modulator[83]; (b) black phosphorus MZI thermooptical modulator[86]; (c) high-speed graphene electro-absorption modulator[91]; (d) graphene electro-refractive modulator[95]; (e) hybrid graphene–WS2 MZM on passive silicon waveguide[98]; (f) efficient MoS2 all-optical modulator[99]

    Fig. 12. Silicon-based two-dimension material modulators. (a) Graphene microdisk thermooptical modulator[83]; (b) black phosphorus MZI thermooptical modulator[86]; (c) high-speed graphene electro-absorption modulator[91]; (d) graphene electro-refractive modulator[95]; (e) hybrid graphene–WS2 MZM on passive silicon waveguide[98]; (f) efficient MoS2 all-optical modulator[99]

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    • Table 1. Summary of representative results on silicon modulators with different optical structures

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      Table 1. Summary of representative results on silicon modulators with different optical structures

      Ref.YearStructureLength or radiusEO bandwidthModulation efficiencyLossSignal transmission speed
      [21]2007PN MZM1 mm20 GHz~4 V·cm—30 Gbit/s OOK
      [22]2007PIN MZM0.1-0.2 mm—3.6 V·cm12 dB10 Gbit/s OOK
      [24]2012PN MZM1 mm40 GHz@6 dB2.8 V·cm7.4 dB50 Gbit/s OOK
      [25]2013Interleaved PN MZM0.95 mm20 GHz2.4 V·cm4 dB40 Gbit/s OOK
      [27]2012Push pull PN MZM2 mm—2.4 V·cm9 dB50 Gbit/s OOK
      [29]2013IQ PN MZM—19 GHz per device—4.5 dB per device224 Gbit/s 16 QAM
      [31]2015PN MZM4 mm41 GHz3.2 V·cm3.8 dB60 Gbit/s OOK
      [32]2018PN MZM2 mm60 GHz1.4 V·cm5.4 dB

      90 Gbit/s OOK

      112 Gbit/s PAM-4

      [34]2023PN MZM2 mm per decive67 GHz per device3 V·cm per device8.5 dB360 Gbit/s 8-ASK
      [35]2005PIN MRM6 μm———5 Gbit/s OOK
      [37]2010PN MRM7.5 μm16.3 GHz——25 Gbit/s OOK
      [38]2020PN MRM10 μm50 GHz0.52 V·cm~3 dB128 Gbit/s PAM-4
      [40]2022PN MRM~5 μm67 GHz——200 Gbit/s PAM-4
      [44]2012Slow light modulator90 μm——6.2 dB40 Gbit/s OOK
      [46]2016Slow light modulator300 μm12 GHz~0.3 V·cm14 dB56 Gbit/s QPSK
      [47]2017Slow light modulator200 μm——5 dB25 Gbit/s OOK
      [48]2019Slow light modulator200 μm38 GHz0.44 V·cm5 dB

      64 Gbit/s OOK

      100 Gbit/s PAM-4

      [50]2011Slow light modulator500 μm16 GHz0.85 V·cm6 dB40 Gbit/s OOK
      [52]2015Slow light modulator155 μm26 GHz——32 Gbit/s OOK
      [55]2021Slow light modulator570 μm40 GHz0.51 V·cm5.5 dB90 Gbit/s PAM-4
      [56]2023Slow light modulator124 μm110 GHz—6.8 dB110 Gbit/s OOK

    • Table 2. Summary of representative results on silicon-based heterogeneous material modulators

      View table

      Table 2. Summary of representative results on silicon-based heterogeneous material modulators

      Ref.YearStructureSize or radiusEO bandwidthModulation efficiencyLossSignal transmission speed
      [59]2008GeSi modulator30.0 μm21.2 GHz—3.7 dB—
      [60]2018GeSi modulator56 GHz—56 Gbit/s OOK
      [62]2022GeSi modulator20.0 μm×40.0 μm65 GHz—4 dB@1550 nm224 Gbit/s PAM-4
      [63]2023GeSi modulator20.0 μm110 GHz2.2 dB/V6.5 dB

      148 Gbit/s OOK

      280 Gbit/s PAM-4

      [64]2014Silicon-organic hybrid modulator0.5 mm100 GHz1.1 V·cm2 dB

      120 Gbit/s PAM-4

      400 Gbit/s 16-QAM

      [66]2020Silicon-organic hybrid modulator8.0 mm68 GHz1.44 V·cm

      100 Gbit/s OOK

      200 Gbit/s PAM-4

      [68]2023Silicon-organic hybrid modulator—176 GHz—1.2 dB408 Gbit/s PAM-4
      [69]2018LNOI modulator5.0 mm100 GHz2.2 V·cm0.5 dB140 GHz 4-ASK
      [70]2022LNOI modulator5.0 mm110 GHz2.37 V·cm18 dB250 Gbit/s six-level pulse amplitude modulation
      [71]2022LNOI modulator5.8 mm170 GHz2.3 V·cm——
      [73]2022LNOI modulator23.5 mm110 GHz2.35 V·cm6.5 dB1.96 Tbit/s 400-QAM
      [74]2022LNOI modulator3.4 mm67 GHz0.35 V·cm0.15 dB240 Gbit/s PAM-4
      [76]2014Hybrid integration LNOI modulator15.0 μm radius5 GHz3.3 pm/V4.3 dB9 Gbit/s OOK
      [77]2018Hybrid integration LNOI modulator5.0 mm106 GHz6.7 V·cm7.6 dB—
      [78]2022Hybrid integration LNOI modulator1.4 cm110 GHz3.1 V·cm1.8 dB—
      [80]2020Hybrid integration LNOI modulator1.3 cm48 GHz2.4 V·cm1.8 dB

      220 Gbit/s QPSK

      320 Gbit/s 16-QAM

      [81]2024Hybrid integration LNOI modulator15.0 μm16 GHz3.89 pm/V1.5 dB45 Gbit/s OOK
      [83]20162D material thermal optical modulator3.0 μm—0.48 nm/mW——
      [86]20202D material thermal optical modulator5.0 μm—0.74 nm/mW——
      [89]20162D material EA modulator50.0 μm5.9 GHz1.5 dB/V3.8 dB10 Gbit/s OOK
      [90]20202D material EA modulator75.0 μm>14 GHz—~4.0 dB50 Gbit/s OOK
      [91]20212D material EA modulator60 μm39 GHz1.49 dB/V0.042 dB40 Gbit/s OOK
      [95]20182D material ER modulator400 μm5 GHz0.28 V·cm9.45 dB10 Gbit/s OOK
      [96]20182D material ER modulator40 μm—0.129 V·cm——
      [104]20182D material all optical modulator100 μm—0.0275 dB/μm——
      [99]20212D material all optical modulator9.7 μm700 Hz0.41 dB/μm~5 dB—
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    Changhao Han, Haoyu Wang, Haowen Shu, Jun Qin, Xingjun Wang. Latest Research Progress in Silicon-Based Modulators (Invited)[J]. Acta Optica Sinica, 2024, 44(15): 1513017

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    Paper Information

    Category: Integrated Optics

    Received: May. 13, 2024

    Accepted: Jun. 20, 2024

    Published Online: Aug. 5, 2024

    The Author Email: Wang Xingjun (xjwang@pku.edu.cn)

    DOI:10.3788/AOS241008

    CSTR:32393.14.AOS241008

    Topics

    laser devices and laser physics
    Lasers and Laser Optics
    Laser physics
    laser manufacturing
    Instrumentation, Measurement and Metrology