Fig. 1. Comparative experiment. (a) tDOS of the device obtained before and after addition. (b) Comparison of TRPL signals between the control group and the target group at different excitation light intensities.

Fig. 2. Mechanism of carrier recombination and its TRPL simulation. (a) Scheme diagram of the original model of charge carrier trapping, detrapping, and recombination in MAPbI₃. Solid blue circles represent electrons, and hollow red circles represent holes. (b) Comparison of TRPL signals for different quality films with a trap depth of 0.1 eV. (c) Comparison of TRPL signals for different quality films with a trap depth of 0.2 eV.

Fig. 3. Schematic diagram of the fitting process. (a) Original TRPL data of MAPbI₃ with different excitations. (b) Fitting curves of MAPbI₃ with different excitations. (c) Process of using a GA to find a reasonable combination of parameters. Statistical distribution of (d) trap densities and (e) trap depths; values are extracted by hundreds of fitting processes, and the number of these values falling within each interval is counted.

Fig. 4. Statistical distribution of the parameters. (a) Statistical distribution of trap density extracted from different signals. (b) Statistical distribution of trap depth extracted from different samples. The black curves on the graph represent the control group, whereas the red curves represent the target group.