Fig. 1. Bacterium-based medical microrobots. (a) Bacterial microrobot constructed by covalent binding of nanoliposomes to magnetotactic bacteria^[33]; (b) biohybrid microrobots constructed using red blood cells and Escherichia coli^[34]; (c) magnetically guided biohybrid microrobots engineered from genetically modified Escherichia coli^[35]; (d) Escherichia coli-based biological conveyor for bidirectional delivery of nanodrugs^[36]; (e) Escherichia coli-based microrobots for targeted delivery of nanobodies towards tumor tissue^[39]

Fig. 2. Microalgae-based medical microrobots. (a) Biohybrid microrobots constructed by Chlamydomonas reinhardtii for treating bacterial infections^[46]; (b) magnetic medical microrobots engineered from Spirulina^[47]; (c) hydrodynamic bio-micromotor tweezers based on optically controlled rotation of green microalgae^[48]; (d) opto-hydrodynamic diatombot for non-invasive trapping and removal of nano-biothreats^[49]; (e) soft bio-microrobots derived from Euglena gracilis^[50]

Fig. 3. Cardiomyocyte-based microrobots. (a) Multifunctional cardiomyocyte microrobot constructed by PDMS film^[69]; (b) cardiomyocyte microrobots with single- and double-tailed flagellar configurations mimicking sperm morphology^[70]; (c) carbon nanotube-based soft robot actuated by cardiomyocytes^[71]; (d) biohybrid swimming fish engineered from cardiomyocytes^[72]; (e) 3D high-density cardiomyocyte microrobot assembled via stereo-acoustic techniques^[73]; (f) stingray-shaped biohybrid robot with a flexible skeletal framework^[74]; (g) smart microrobot featuring light-controlled deformation for bionic whale tail fin motion^[75]; (h) programmable cardiomyocyte microrobot designed by an AI-driven automated biofabrication system^[76]

Fig. 4. Erythrocyte-based medical microrobots. (a) Erythrocyte micromotor with hybrid magnetic-acoustic actuation^[87]; (b) magnetically controlled erythrocyte microrobot for primary/metastatic tumor suppression^[88]; (c) dual-fiber optical tweezers-constructed erythrocyte waveguide for blood sensing and drug delivery^[89]; (d) optically controlled erythrocyte optofluidic switch^[90]; (e) erythrocyte nuclear micropump in narrow vascular bifurcations^[91]; (f) programmable erythrocyte microrouter for in vivo operation^[92]

Fig. 5. Platelet-based medical microrobots. (a) Endogenous enzyme-driven Janus platelet micromotor^[100]; (b) photothermal platelet micromotor with immunostimulatory effects^[101]; (c) multifunctional ultrasound-responsive platelet micromotor^[102]; (d) engineered platelet micromotor constructed via universal dopamine self-polymerization modification^[103]

Fig. 6. Macrophage microrobots. (a) NIR light-activated macrophage microrobot loaded with oxaliplatin prodrug and zinc phthalocyanine nanomedicine^[112]; (b) magnetic/chemotactic dual-driven macrophage microrobot utilizing tumor infiltration characteristics for targeted drug delivery^[113]; (c) macrophage microrobot integrated with superparamagnetic nanoparticles and doxorubicin thermosensitive liposomes for magnetic field-coordinated NIR light-controlled operation^[114]; (d) acoustic tweezers-based micro/nanorobot employing microbubble probes and ultrasound mechanical stimulation for dynamic regulation and precise drug release^[115]; (e) macrophage-based microrobot designed for remote magnetic actuation, antitumor activity, and medical imaging^[116]

Fig. 7. Neutrophil microrobots. (a) Chemotaxis-guided neutrophil micromotor for targeted drug transport^[126]; (b) sonodynamic oxygen-carrying neutrophil robot for malignant tumor therapy^[127]; (c) dual-responsive neutrophil robot for precise drug delivery targeting brain malignant gliomas^[128]; (d) programmable light-controlled neutrophil microrobot^[129]