Laser & Optoelectronics Progress, Volume. 62, Issue 8, 0837008(2025)
Window-Detection Method Based on Hole Constraints and Hierarchical Localization
Figures & Tables(14)
Fig. 1. Main flow of window detection method based on hole constraints and hierarchical localization
Fig. 4. Window boundary optimization process. (a) Original boundary points; (b) initial feature points; (c) adjusted feature points; (d) optimized boundary points; (e) window wire frame model
Fig. 5. Boundary extraction of different k values. (a) k=5; (b) k=10; (c) k=15; (d) k=20; (e) k=25; (f) k=30; (g) k=35; (h) k=40
Fig. 6. Running time and boundary integrity of different k values. (a) Rectangular boundary point set; (b) curved boundary point set
Fig. 7. Window detection process in facade 1. (a) Building facade point cloud data; (b) main wall extraction results; (c) precise boundary extraction results; (d) window modularization results; (e) window boundary optimization results; (f) window detection result
Fig. 8. Window detection process in facade 2. (a) Building facade point cloud data; (b) main wall extraction results; (c) precise boundary extraction results; (d) window modularization results; (e) window boundary optimization results; (f) window detection result
Fig. 9. Window detection process in facade 3. (a) Building facade point cloud data; (b) main wall extraction results; (c) precise boundary extraction results; (d) window modularization results; (e) window boundary optimization results; (f) window detection result
Fig. 10. Window detection process in facade 4. (a) Building facade point cloud data; (b) main wall extraction results; (c) precise boundary extraction results; (d) window modularization results; (e) window boundary optimization results; (f) window detection result
Fig. 11. Window detection process in facade 5. (a) Building facade point cloud data; (b) main wall extraction results; (c) precise boundary extraction results; (d) window modularization results; (e) window boundary optimization results; (f) window detection result
Fig. 12. Comparison of window detection results for facades 1‒5. (a) GT; (b) hierarchical method; (c) opening detection method; (d) proposed method
Table 1. Comparison of total time for different methods
View tableTable 1. Comparison of total time for different methods
Method Time /s 1 2 3 4 5 Hierarchical method［ 22 ］4.588 15.763 8.256 4.554 8.958 Opening detection method［ 25 ］2.919 10.588 3.227 4.294 5.144 Proposed method 2.387 9.544 3.139 3.734 10.230
Table 2. Quantitative evaluation of window detection results for different methods
View tableTable 2. Quantitative evaluation of window detection results for different methods
Facade Method GT TP FP FN Correctness /% Completeness /% 1 Hierarchical method［ 22 ］3 3 0 0 100.0 100.0 Opening detection method［ 25 ］3 2 2 1 50.0 66.7 Proposed method 3 2 0 1 100.0 66.7 2 Hierarchical method［ 22 ］9 9 1 0 90.0 100.0 Opening detection method［ 25 ］9 8 5 1 61.5 88.9 Proposed method 9 9 0 0 100.0 100.0 3 Hierarchical method［ 22 ］3 3 2 0 60.0 100.0 Opening detection method［ 25 ］3 3 5 0 37.5 100.0 Proposed method 3 3 0 0 100.0 100.0 4 Hierarchical method［ 22 ］3 3 1 0 75.0 100.0 Opening detection method［ 25 ］3 3 3 0 50.0 100.0 Proposed method 3 3 0 0 100.0 100.0 5 Hierarchical method［ 22 ］4 4 1 0 80.0 100.0 Opening detection method［ 25 ］4 4 1 0 80.0 100.0 Proposed method 4 4 0 0 100.0 100.0
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Xiaojuan Ning, Jiawei Du, Chunxu Li, Lei Huang, Zhenghao Shi, Haiyan Jin. Window-Detection Method Based on Hole Constraints and Hierarchical Localization[J]. Laser & Optoelectronics Progress, 2025, 62(8): 0837008
Paper Information
Category: Digital Image Processing
Received: Aug. 1, 2024
Accepted: Oct. 28, 2024
Published Online: Apr. 7, 2025
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CSTR:32186.14.LOP241777
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