Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of the redistribution of solar radiation energy outside the atmosphere, where the polar regions primarily reflect energy, while areas closer to the equator mainly absorb energy

Fig. 2. Schematic diagram of the distribution and transfer of solar radiation as it reaches the top of the atmosphere and enters the atmosphere^[39]

Fig. 3. Satellite missions conducting remote sensing observations of the Earth’s radiation budget since 1975. In the chart, yellow bars denote scanning observation systems, orange represents fixed field-of-view systems, and green indicates CubeSat missions

Fig. 4. The Earth’s surface and top-of-atmosphere (TOA) radiation energy imbalance values derived by combining radiative transfer simulation models from different climate models with space-based observations. The average value for the surface EEI model is (1.51±0.26) W/m², while the average value for the TOA EEI model is (1.15±0.77) W/m^{2 ［39］}