Fig. 1. Conceptual diagram of imaging model of TOF image sensor

Fig. 2. Optical geometric perspective relationship between pixel array and field-of-view

Fig. 3. Effect before and after adding diffuser. (a) Before adding diffuser; (b) after adding diffuser

Fig. 4. Vector diagram of field-of-view based on the phong model

Fig. 5. Four-phase charge sampling process

Fig. 6. Verification in static scenarios. (a) Comparison of measured and simulated distance data at different imaging distances; (b) RMSE comparison of measured and simulated distance data at different imaging distances

Fig. 7. Measured images and simulated three-dimensional (3D) images. (a) Amplitude image of a wall; (b) measured 3D image of a wall; (c) simulated 3D image of a wall; (d) amplitude image of a hemisphere; (e) measured 3D image of a hemisphere; (f) simulated 3D image of a hemisphere

Fig. 8. Mean pixel error (MPE) between measured and simulated 3D images at different frame rates and speeds. (a) Different frame rates; (b) different speeds

Fig. 9. MPE of two exposure modes at different frame rates and speeds. (a) Global shutter; (b) rolling shutter

Fig. 10. Three-dimensional diagram between MPE difference, frame rate and speed

Fig. 11. Relationship between imaging distance and MPE at the lowest point of imaging condition b