Fig. 1. SEM image and the mapping of the corresponding elements of the electrolytic surface of TA15 titanium alloy

Fig. 2. Surface morphology and phase composition of electrolytic oxide layer of TA15 titanium alloy. (a) Macroscopic surface morphology; (b) SEM microscopic morphology; (c) XRD pattern

Fig. 3. Schematic diagram of laser cleaning device and laser scanning path. (a) Schematic diagram of laser cleaning device; (b) laser scanning path

Fig. 4. Effect of different laser energy densities on the microscopic morphology of TA15 electrolytic surface oxide film. (a) 0.80 J/cm²; (b) 1.43 J/cm²; (c) 2.39 J/cm²; (d) 5.09 J/cm²; (e) 8.44 J/cm²; (f) 17.51 J/cm²; (a1)‒(f1) high magnification images of the selected areas

Fig. 5. EDS results for different regions in Fig. 4. (a)‒(e) A₁‒E₁; (f)‒(j) A₂‒E₂

Fig. 6. Changes in elemental mass fraction of TA15 titanium alloy surface and its phases after cleaning with different laser energy densities

Fig. 7. EDS pattern of the ridge-like structures and their elemental mass fractions. (a) SEM image of the ridge-like structure; (b) EDS pattern of the ridge-like structure; (c) elemental mass fractions of the ridge-like structure

Fig. 8. XRD pattern of electrolytic surface oxide film of TA15 titanium alloy after laser cleaning

Fig. 9. Effect of different laser energy densities on the XPS of Ti and O on the electrolytic surface oxide film of TA15 titanium alloy. (a)(b) 0.80 J/cm²; (c)(d) 2.39 J/cm²; (e)(f) 8.44 J/cm²

Fig. 10. Electrolyzed surface morphology and Ra value of TA15 titanium alloy after laser cleaning under different energy density conditions

Fig. 11. Surface morphology, height difference, and SEM images of TA15 titanium alloy after electrolysing at the current density of 4 A/cm². (a)‒(c) No laser cleaning applied during the process; (d)‒(f) laser cleaning applied during the process