Fig. 1. Ultraviolet projection lithography technology. (a) Schematic of principle of projection lithography^[54]; (b) microstructures of the metalens fabricated by DUV lithography at 193 nm wavelength^[52]; (c) a photograph of the metalens fabricated by DUV multistep lithography at 248 nm wavelength^[53]; (d) microstructures of the metalens^[53]; (e) image of the moon captured by the metalens telescope^[53]

Fig. 2. Proximity lithography technology. (a) Schematic of principle of proximity lithography^[58]; (b) mask design based on Talbot effect in proximity lithography^[57]; (c) periodic structures fabricated by proximity lithography^[57]

Fig. 3. Schematic of principle of holography with total internal reflection^[58]. (a) Recording process of holographic mask; (b) lithography process of holographic mask

Fig. 4. Synthetic holographic mask lithography technology. (a) Microstructures of stair-type synthetic holographic mask^[66]; (b) mask pattern, simulated spatial image intensity image, and lithographic pattern^[66]; (c) binary structure synthetic holographic mask^[72]

Fig. 5. Schematic of principle of nanoimprint technologies. (a) Thermal imprinting; (b) UV imprinting; (c) reverse imprinting

Fig. 6. Planar nanoimprint technology. (a) Schematic of principle of substrate conformal imprint lithography^[87]; (b) mold of nanoimprint technology without demolding process^[89]; (c) microstructure manufactured by nanoimprint technology without demolding process^[89]; (d) flexible superlens manufactured by nanoimprint technology without demolding process^[89]; (e) nanoimprint mold^[90]; (f) superlens with the diameter of 6 mm^[90]

Fig. 7. Roller nanoimprint technology. (a) Roll-to-roll nanoimprint lithography^[91]; (b) schematic of multiphase numerical model with a sliding mesh method^[94]

Fig. 8. Schematic of principle of two-photon laser direct writing lithography technology^[95]

Fig. 9. Parallel laser direct writing lithography based on micro lens array. (a) Schematic of lithography principle of micro lens array^[98]; (b) array structure with unit size of 2 μm^[96]; (c) lithographic structure exposed by micro lens array^[97]; (d) hexagonal micro lens array^[98]

Fig. 10. Parallel laser direct writing lithography based on diffractive optical element. (a) Schematic of focus array of the lithography system^[99]; (b) micro-nano structure manufactured by parallel laser direct writing lithography^[99]; (c) planar micro-nano structure manufactured with 3×3 laser array^[100]; (d) manufactured large three-dimensional micro-nano structure^[100]; (e) schematic of using metasurface to simplify traditional complex imaging system^[101]; (f) exposed lateral suspension line with the width of 100.8 nm^[101]; (g) three-dimensional micro-nano bridges^[101]

Fig. 11. Multifocal parallel laser direct writing lithography based on spatial light modulator. (a) Schematic of principle of tunable multifocal laser direct writing lithography system based on spatial light modulator^[102]; (b)-(e) scanning electron microscope (SEM) images of various focus distribution and fabricated structures^[102]; (f) schematic of principle of three-dimensional multifocal peripheral photoinhibition laser direct writing lithography system based on spatial light modulator^[103]; (g) comparison of lithography results between peripheral photoinhibition lithography and two-photon lithography^[103]; (h) lithographic schematic of stepped structure on a compact disc^[103]

Fig. 12. Parallel laser direct writing lithography based on digital micromirror device. (a) Schematic of principle of laser direct writing system^[49]; (b) SEM image of ORC array^[49]; (c) schematic of principle of scanning system based on digital micromirror device^[104]; (d) SEM image of micro-nano bridge^[104]; (e) schematic of principle of simultaneous spatial and temporal focusing two-photon lithography system^[48]; (f) SEM image of overhanging micro-nano structure^[48]

Fig. 13. Electron beam direct writing lithography. (a) Cross interspersed nano-columns with different heights^[106]; (b) different colors filtering realized by using nano-column arrays with different heights, sizes, and arrangements^[106]; (c) exposed pattern structure by electron beam crosslinking-induced patterning technology^[107]; (d) height and lateral dimension distribution of crosslinking-induced pattern structure^[107]; (e) schematic of the electron beam lithography with Gaussian beam and variable shaped beam^[108]; (f) schematic of principle of multiple beam electron beam lithography setup^[111]; (g) dislocation distribution diagram of electron beam set^[111]

Fig. 14. Focused ion beam direct writing lithography. (a) Reflection filter fabricated by focused ion beam direct writing lithography technology^[116]; (b) molecular crystal resonators fabricated by focused ion beam direct writing lithography technology^[117]