Review of Tissue Phantoms for Biomedical Optical Applications

Zhonghong Yang; Liyuan He; Yingchao Wu; Hanwen Zhang; Yuewen Yu; Dongjie Zhao; Xinyu Li; Rong Liu; Wenliang Chen; Chenxi Li

doi:10.3788/LOP241443

Laser & Optoelectronics Progress, Volume. 62, Issue 4, 0400002(2025)

Review of Tissue Phantoms for Biomedical Optical Applications

Zhonghong Yang^1,2,3、*, Liyuan He³, Yingchao Wu², Hanwen Zhang^1,2, Yuewen Yu^1,2, Dongjie Zhao^1,2,3, Xinyu Li^1,2, Rong Liu^1,2, Wenliang Chen^1,2, and Chenxi Li^1,2

Author Affiliations

¹State Key Laboratory of Precision Measuring Technology and Instruments, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China

²School of Precision Instrument and Optic Electronic Engineering, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China

³School of Medicine, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China

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Figures & Tables(7)

Table 1. Commonly used tissue optical parameters for optical phantoms

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Table 1. Commonly used tissue optical parameters for optical phantoms

Tissue type	Wavelength /nm	Absorption coefficient /mm^-1	Reduced scattering coefficient /mm^-1
Skin^［6］	400	3.76±0.35	71.80±9.4
	500	1.19±0.16	32.50±4.2
	600	0.69±0.13	21.80±3.0
	700	0.48±0.11	16.70±2.3
	800	0.43±0.11	14.00±1.9
	900	0.33±0.02	15.70±2.1
	1000	0.27±0.03	16.80±2.8
Human epithelial tissue^［7］	400	12.96±1.44	106.20±11.0
	500	7.07±0.66	70.60±7.0
	600	3.08±0.76	51.40±5.0
	700	2.58±0.77	42.70±4.1
	800	1.71±0.59	36.80±3.6
	900	0.80±0.45	33.60±3.5
	1000	0.45±0.28	30.60±3.4
Human dermal tissue^［7］	400	9.13±1.18	76.80±11.0
	500	3.36±0.43	46.20±4.6
	600	1.72±0.24	32.20±2.9
	700	1.53±0.25	26.40±2.5
	800	1.22±0.21	22.50±2.3
	900	0.83±0.17	20.10±2.3
	1000	0.79±0.18	18.60±2.2
Human subcutaneous tissue^［8］	400	2.26±0.24	13.40±2.8
	500	1.49±0.06	13.80±4.0
	600	1.18±0.02	13.40±4.7
	700	1.11±0.05	12.20±4.4
	800	1.07±0.11	11.60±4.6
	900	1.07±0.07	10.00±3.4
	1000	1.06±0.06	9.39±3.3

Table 2. Commonly used matrix materials of optical phantoms

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Table 2. Commonly used matrix materials of optical phantoms

Phantom matrix material	Permanent	Solid/liquid/flexible	Young modulus	Hardness /HA	Biologically compatible	Organic chemical compatible	Index of refraction	Recommended forming method
Aqueous suspension^［1］	No	Liquid	‒	‒	Yes	Yes	1.34	Mould filling
Gelatin/agar matrix^［9-10］	No	Flexible	0.1‒10.0 MPa	0‒100	Yes	Yes	1.35	Moulding
Polyacrylamide gel^［11］	No	Flexible	1‒100 kPa	20‒90	Yes	Yes	1.35	Moulding
Polyester or epoxy resin^［12-13］	Yes	Solid	2‒15 GPa	50‒90	No	No	1.54	Moulding， spin-coating， additive manufacturing
RTV silicone^［14］	Yes	Flexible	0.01‒10.00 MPa	0‒80	No	No	1.40	Moulding， spin-coating， additive manufacturing

Table 3. Commonly used scattering materials of tissue optical phantoms

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Table 3. Commonly used scattering materials of tissue optical phantoms

Scatterer material	Permanent	Particle size	Index of refraction	Recommended matrix materials
Lipids microspheres^［15］	No	10‒500 nm	1.45	Aqueous， gelatin/agar matrix
Polymer microspheres^［16］	Yes	50 nm‒100 μm	1.59	Aqueous， resin， RTV silicon
TiO₂ /Al₂O₃ powders	Yes	20‒70 nm	2.4‒2.9	Resin， RTV silicon

Table 4. Commonly used absorbing materials of tissue optical phantoms

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Table 4. Commonly used absorbing materials of tissue optical phantoms

Absorbing material	Stability	Recommended matrix material
Whole blood^［18-19］	Hours to days	Aqueous， gelatin matrix
India ink^［20-22］	Days to weeks	Aqueous， agar matrix， resin， RTV silicon
Molecular dyes^［23-24］	Days to weeks	Resin， RTV silicon

Table 5. Main characteristics and applications of tissue optical phantom

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Table 5. Main characteristics and applications of tissue optical phantom

Characteristic type	Major parameter	Phantom application
Optical	Absorption coefficient Scattering coefficient Refractive index Fluorescence property	Tissue spectral imaging Diffuse optical tomography Coherence optical tomography
Acoustic	Speed of sound Impedance Attenuation	Photoacoustic imaging
Thermal	Capacity Conductivity Expansion Thermostability	Photoacoustic imaging
Mechanical	Stiffness Modulus Density	Photoacoustic imaging Wearable device detection
Geometric structure	Simpe block Embedded tube/channel Thin-layer Shape of target tissue area	Diffuse optical tomography Coherence optical tomography Photoacoustic imaging Wearable device detection
Surface texture	Smoothness Roughness Skin-like texture structure	Coherence optical tomography
Dynamic	Volume change Liquid flow Temperature variation	Photoacoustic imaging Wearable device detection
Stable/repeatable	Consistent properties over time Repeatable manufacturing over multiple batches Reusability	Almost all phantom applications

Table 6. Commonly used fabrication methods for phantoms

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Table 6. Commonly used fabrication methods for phantoms

Phantom fabrication method	Suitable tissue	Feature	Equipment required
Casting molding	Muscle， bone， skin， blood vessel	Easy to make， can not support complex structures	Proper molds
Spin-coating method	Skin， epithelial tissue， dermal tissue， cornea	Suitable for use in making thin layer structure	Spinner
3D-pringting method	Almost all kinds of human tissues	Phantoms with high complexity， limitations in the use of materials	3D printer

Table 7. Commonly-used 3D process methods for phantoms

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Table 7. Commonly-used 3D process methods for phantoms

3D printing type	Subtype	Material	Application	Advantage	Limitation
Material extrusion^［35-37］	Fused deposition modeling （FDM） 3D bioprinting 3D printing of architecture	Plastic， metal， food materials， organic or biological materials	Electrical shell， geometric shape matching test， casting model	Low cost， wide range of materials	Low material performance （strength， durability）， low dimensional accuracy
Reductive photopolymerization^［38-41］	Stereo lithography appearance （SLA） Liquid crystal display （LCD） Digital light processing （DLP）	Light-cured resin	Fine parts model， jewelry design and manufacturing， dental model manufacturing	High dimensional accuracy， complex geometries manufacturability	Single printing material
Powder bed fusion^［42-43］	Selective laser sintering （SLS） Laser powder bed fusion （LPBF） Electron beam melting （EBM）	Plastic powder， metal powder， ceramic powder	Functional component manufacturing， complex pipeline model	Good mechanical properties， complex geometries manufacturability	Slow manufacturing speed
Material jetting^［44-45］	Continuous material jetting （CMJ） Nano particle jetting （NPJ）	Photosensitive resin， wax	Full color model manufacturing， medical model manufacturing	High surface smoothness， excellent visual appearance， simultaneous printing of multiple materials	Inapplicable for producing precision mechanical parts， higher cost compared to other printing technologies for visual effects

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Zhonghong Yang, Liyuan He, Yingchao Wu, Hanwen Zhang, Yuewen Yu, Dongjie Zhao, Xinyu Li, Rong Liu, Wenliang Chen, Chenxi Li. Review of Tissue Phantoms for Biomedical Optical Applications[J]. Laser & Optoelectronics Progress, 2025, 62(4): 0400002

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Paper Information

Category: Reviews

Received: Jun. 6, 2024

Accepted: Jul. 9, 2024

Published Online: Feb. 18, 2025

The Author Email:

DOI:10.3788/LOP241443

CSTR:32186.14.LOP241443

Topics

laser devices and laser physics

Lasers and Laser Optics

Laser physics

laser manufacturing

Instrumentation, Measurement and Metrology