Fig. 1. Standard PSF model of the microsocpe. (a) PSF on the focal plane (xy); (b) PSF on the axial plane (xz); (c) PSF on the axial plane (yz); (d) three-dimensional distribution of the PSF

Fig. 2. Principle of the microscopic imaging. (a) Traditional microscopic imaging; (b) computational microscopy imaging based on PSF engineering

Fig. 3. Focusing model of the high numerical aperture microscope objective

Fig. 4. Focusing model in stratified mediums

Fig. 5. Schematic diagram of 3D STORM. (a) Optical system; (b) PSF size at different axial depths^[32]

Fig. 6. Schematic diagram of double helix PSF imaging system. (a) Detection path of the imaging system; (b) angles of the two main lobes of the PSF at different axial depths; (c) fluorescent particle images at different axial depths^[33]

Fig. 7. Deep single-molecule localization imaging of quadruped PSF. (a) Phase image for 6 μm depth imaging; (b) simulated PSF at different depths (6 μm); (c) experimental PSF at different depths (6 μm); (d) three-dimensional positioning accuracy at different depths (6 μm); (e) phase image for 20 μm depth imaging; (f) simulated PSF at different depths (20 μm); (g) experimental PSF at different depths (20 μm); (h) three-dimensional positioning accuracy at different depths (20 μm)^[48]

Fig. 8. PSF design based on deep learning. (a) Phase response corresponding to different wavelengths; (b) PSF design process; (c) SLM gray scale image for color classification; (d) phase response of SLM gray scale image corresponding to different wavelengths; (e) PSF generated by different wavelengths^[50]

Fig. 9. Principle of the MINFLUX system. (a) System principle; (b) movement of hollow PSF; (c) nano microscopy imaging; (d) single molecule tracking in the nanometer range; (e) single molecule tracking in the micrometer range^[35]

Fig. 10. Schematic diagram of the FED. (a) PSF of the confocal excitation; (b) PSF of the negative excitation; (c) PSF of the confocal imaging; (d) PSF of the negative confocal imaging; (e) PSF of the FED imaging^[60]

Fig. 11. PSF for isotropic FED. (a) Lateral (xy) PSF of confocal excitation light; (b) lateral (xy) PSF of lateral negative excitation light; (c) lateral (xy) PSF of axial negative excitation light; (d) axial (xz) PSF of confocal excitation light; (e) axial (xz) PSF of lateral negative excitation light; (f) axial (xz) PSF of axial negative excitation light^[61]

Fig. 12. PSF of three-dimensional FED. (a) Lateral (xy) PSF of confocal excitation light; (b) lateral (xy) PSF of lateral negative excitation light; (c) lateral (xy) PSF of axial negative excitation light; (d) axial (xz) PSF of confocal excitation light; (e) axial (xz) PSF of lateral negative excitation light; (f) axial (xz) PSF of axial negative excitation light^[62]

Fig. 13. Cylindrical polarized light FED. (a) Tangentially polarized light; (b) lateral (xy) PSF of negative excitation light; (c) axial (xz) PSF of negative excitation light; (d) radially polarized light; (e) lateral (xy) PSF of confocal excitation light; (f) axial (xz) PSF of confocal excitation light^[64]

Fig. 14. Schematic diagram of the SAC^[65]

Fig. 15. Principle of the NFOMM. (a) Schematic diagram; (b) effective PSF and OTF of phase plate and system; (c) OTF curve; (d) simulated imaging structure^[67]