In order to meet the high-precision requirements for machine vision for detecting the inner diameter of glass tubes in optical communication, as well as to address the influence of uneven lighting on detection accuracy, a large-aperture, high-resolution double-sided telecentric optical system with coaxial illumination through aberration balancing and optimization design is proposed based on the theory of four-component structural design. The system consists of a spherical lens and a splitter prism, with a magnification of 6×, F-number of 8, and an object numerical aperture of 0.3759, and is suitable for large format industrial cameras with a resolution of 65 million pixels. The design results show that the imaging quality of the system is close to the diffraction limit, the optical modulation transfer function is greater than 0.1 at the Nyquist frequency of 156 lp/mm, the maximum distortion is less than 0.1%, the object-image square telecentricity is less than 0.1° in all cases, and the system resolution is as high as 1 μm.