Fig. 1. Summary of different super-resolution imaging techniques. (a) Conventional imaging; (b) SIM; (c) SOFI; (d) STED; (e) expansion microscopy; (f) SMLM

Fig. 2. Cilia and ciliopathy. (a) Cilia and affected organs; (b) structure of sensory and motile cilia

Fig. 3. Super-resolution imaging resolves ciliary architecture. (a)‒(c) Transition zone architecture revealed by STED^[43], STORM^[44], and expansion microscopy^[48]; (d) STORM reveals an unexpected matrix zone for the transition fiber^[43]; (e) organization of basal foot proteins in both sensory and motile cilia revealed by three-dimensional (3D) SIM^[50]; (f) STORM shows that CatSper1 forms four linear domains along the sperm flagella^[55]; (g) SIM reveals that Chlamydomonas PKD2 forms two linear domains and associates with doublets 4 and 8^[57]; (h) STORM reveals the 96-nm periodicity of the RS component RSPH4A^[40]; (i) ROSE-Z shows that CCDC176 binds and stabilizes doublets 1 and 9^[58]

Fig. 4. Super-resolution imaging aids ciliopathy investigation and diagnostics. (a) 3D SIM reveals the disruption of the transition zone and impairment of Hh signaling in patients with JS^[44]; (b) 3D SIM-based PCD molecular fingerprint for PCD diagnosis^[40]; (c) PCD diagnosis based on quantitative 3D SIM^[40]; (d) PCD diagnosis based on rotational polarity^[40]; (e) STORM reveals the preservation of 96-nm periodicity in CCDC39 loss of function cells^[40]; (f) PCD diagnosis based on MAGNIFY-SOFI^[65]