Infrared and Laser Engineering, Volume. 52, Issue 3, 20230036(2023)
Linear-mode HgCdTe avalanche photodiode detectors for photon-counting applications (invited)
Figures & Tables(23)
Fig. 1. (a) Relationship between impact ionization coefficient ratio and Cd component
Fig. 3. (a) Diagram of HgCdTe SAM-APD structure; (b) Epitaxial structure of HgCdTe SAM-APD grown by molecular-beam epitaxy
Fig. 5. (a) Multiple acquisitions showing detection of 0, 1 and 2 photons with average illumination of one photon; (b) Single photon acquisition with double pulses closely spaced time (<6 ns) without afterpulsing observed
Fig. 7. 2×8 linear middle wave HgCdTe APD photon counting focal plane array
Fig. 9. HgCdTe e-APD gain curves measured at
Fig. 10. Probability distributions for detecting 1 and 2 photons events and uniformly distributed dark current generation in the multi-plication layer
Fig. 11. Illustration of a fast response HgCdTe APD architecture with separate absorption and multiplicaiton layer, the corresponding band gap variation
Fig. 12. (a) Structure schematic and (b) band structure of MOVPE heterostructure HgCdTe APD array
Fig. 15. Performances of MWIR HgCdTe APD at 80 K. （a） Photocurrent, dark current and gain; (b) Variation of excess noise factor
Fig. 16. Imaging demonstration of a HgCdTe APD focal plane under different gains with
Table 1. Comparison of linear and Geiger mode technology
View tableView in ArticleTable 1. Comparison of linear and Geiger mode technology
Parameters Linear mode Geiger mode 备注：(1) 由于后脉冲的捕获和再发射大量载流子导致的死时间限制了脉冲间隔分辨率。 (2) 多脉冲盖革统计能达到10 cm的距离分辨率。 (3) 通过多次事件符合过滤可以区分倍增的光子信号和倍增的体暗电流。 Able to sense single photon event Yes Yes Single event dynamic range >1000∶1 1 photon same as 2 or 1000 APD gain >60 105-106 ROIC front end High gain, low noise Low gain, high noise Repetitive pulse resolution 1-2 ns 100-1000 ns(1) Optical crosstalk Minimal Significant radiative recombination of a large number of carriers Range resolution (pulse-to-pulse) ~20 cm 1500-15000 cm(2) Discriminate gained signal from ungained surface dark current Yes, by thresholding Yes, by thresholding Discriminate gained signal from gained radiation (γ, p) Yes, by amplitude No, Can’t discriminate with single pulses(3) Discriminate gained “few” photon signal from gained bulk Idark Yes, by amplitude No, can’t discriminate with single pulses returns(3) Photon detection efficiency Optical QE>90% Geiger efficiency ~30%– 50%
Table 2. Performance of HgCdTe APD 4×4 photon counting sensor chip assembly
View tableView in ArticleTable 2. Performance of HgCdTe APD 4×4 photon counting sensor chip assembly
Parameters Results Response waveband 1.55 μm Operating voltages <20 V Operating temperature 80-180 K or greater Maximum gain 200-350 Dark count rate (DCR) (counts/s) at M>100 <104（80-160 K） , <10 5 （180 K） Surface dark current <10−13A Max reset time 10 ms Operability >90% Probability of detection >95% False alarm rate <1%
Table 3. Comparison of performance of 2×8 linear HgCdTe APDs photon counting arrays in 2010 and 2013
View tableView in ArticleTable 3. Comparison of performance of 2×8 linear HgCdTe APDs photon counting arrays in 2010 and 2013
Parameters Array in 2010 Two arrays in 2013 A8327-8-2 A8327-14-1 P-type doping VHg Cu+VHg VHg Cd composition 0.33 0.33 0.33 Gain 470@ 13 V 1910@12.9 V 1100@12.9 V Maximum Photon Detection Efficiency(PDE) 50%@14 V 72%@12.9 V 66%@12.9 V FER@PDE=50% >1 MHz 151 kHz 158 kHz Mean single photon SNR 13.7 21.9 12.3 Excess noise factor, F 1.3-1.4 1.25 1.20 Measured RMS jitter 632 ps 2370 ps 1570 ps Minimum time between events 8 ns No measured 9 ns
Table 4. Typical performance of SWIR and MWIR Hg-CdTe APDs at
T = 80 KView tableView in ArticleTable 4. Typical performance of SWIR and MWIR Hg-CdTe APDs at
T = 80 KParameters SWIR MWIR Quantum efficiency (QE) 60%-80% Max gain 2 000 13000 Bias at M=100 12-14 V 7-10 V F 1.1-1.4 QE to F ratios 40%-70% Typical response time 0.5-20 ns Maximum gain-bandwidth product 2.1 THz
Table 5. HgCdTe APD performance index for space lidar application
View tableView in ArticleTable 5. HgCdTe APD performance index for space lidar application
Parameters Objetive Response waveband 0.3-3 μm F 1.2 Quantum efficiency (QE) 90% Temporal resolution 5 ns-10 μs Photon noise limited dynamic range 60 dB Detector noise <1 photon Minimum detected photon noise limited signal <1 photon
Table 6. C- RED ONE camera performances
View tableView in ArticleTable 6. C- RED ONE camera performances
Parameters Results Maximum frame frequency 3500 fps Mean dark + readout noise at 3500 fps and Gain~30 < 1 e− Quantization 16 bit Operating temperature 80 K Peak quantum efficiency from 0.8 μm to 2.5 μm > 70% Operability 99.30% Image full well capacity at gain 1, 3500 fps 50000 e− F < 1.25
Table 7. Performances of HgCdTe APD for photon-counting application from different research institutes
View tableView in ArticleTable 7. Performances of HgCdTe APD for photon-counting application from different research institutes
Parameters Raytheon DRS CEA/TETI Leonardo SITP KIP Able to sense single photon event Yes Yes Yes Yes No No APD structure SAM HDVIP PIN SAM PIN PIN Epitaxial technique MBE LPE MBE/LPE MOVPE LPE LPE Cut-off wavelength @77 K 1.55 μm at absorption region, 1.27 μm at gain region 4.3 μm 2.5-5.3 μm 2.5 μm at absorption region, 3.5 μm at gain region 4.7-5.2 μm 4.6 μm Multiplication mechanism Hole multiplication Electron multiplication Electron multiplication Electron multiplication Electron multiplication Electron multiplication Maximum gain 350 6100 2 000 for SW 13000 for MW 66@14.5 V >1000 >1000 F F~1 1.2 1.1-1.4 < 1.25 <1.5@M<400 <1.5@<8.5 V Bandwidth (BW) 1-3 GHz of ROIC BW No given Max BW 10 GHz@M=1 300 K No given, low BW 300-600 MHz No reported Dark count rate (DCR) <10 kHz（80-160 K）; <100 kHz （180 K） <20 kHz 100 kHz for SW 1 MHz for MW 21 Hz/pixel Calculated by dark current: 100 kHz-3 GHz Calculated by dark current: 560 kHz-170 MHz Photon detection efficiency (PDE) >95% 72% ~90% >90% No reported No reported Minimum time between events <6 ns 8 ns 5 ns-10 μs 125 μs No reported No reported
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Huijun Guo, Lu Chen, Liao Yang, Chuan Shen, Hao Xie, Chun Lin, Ruijun Ding, Li He. Linear-mode HgCdTe avalanche photodiode detectors for photon-counting applications (invited)[J]. Infrared and Laser Engineering, 2023, 52(3): 20230036
Paper Information
Category: Special issue-Advances in single-photon detection technology
Received: Jan. 29, 2023
Accepted: --
Published Online: Apr. 12, 2023
The Author Email: Chen Lu (chenlu@mail.sitp.ac.cn)
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